Environmental Impacts

By ; Welborn Kibwota on

 

Oil Exploration and Environmental Impacts Around Pakwach and Nwoya

Executive Summary

T he districts of Pakwach and Nwoya in northern Uganda sit at the epicenter of one of Africa's most ambitious—and controversial—oil development projects. As part of the Tilenga Project operated by TotalEnergies, these communities now find themselves navigating the complex intersection of economic opportunity and environmental degradation. This investigative research examines the multifaceted impacts of oil exploration in the EA1 Pakwach Basin, utilizing geospatial data, environmental assessments, and community testimonies to reveal the true cost of Uganda's oil ambitions.

Geographic Context and Coordinates

Pakwach District

Coordinates: 2°27'25.79"N, 31°29'32.39"E (Decimal: 2.4572°N, 31.4923°E)

Pakwach is strategically located in Northern Uganda along the Albert Nile, approximately 100 kilometers northwest of Gulu. The town serves as a critical transit point connecting northern Uganda to West Nile and serves as one of the primary host communities for oil exploration activities.

Nwoya District

Coordinates: 2°38'06.0"N, 32°00'00.0"E (Decimal: 2.6350°N, 32.0000°E) Area: 4,170.6 square kilometers Geographic Boundaries: Longitude 31-32°E, Latitude 2-3°N Elevation: 990 meters (3,250 feet) above sea level

Nwoya District, carved out of Amuru District in 2010, encompasses significant portions of the Murchison Falls National Park and serves as the northern anchor of the Tilenga Project. The district is bordered by Omoro and Oyam districts to the east and shares its western boundary with the oil-rich Albertine Graben.

The Albertine Graben Region

The Albertine Graben is part of the western branch of the East African Rift Valley, extending approximately 500 kilometers from Lake Albert northward. This geological formation contains an estimated 6.5 billion barrels of oil, with 1.4 billion barrels considered commercially recoverable. The region's unique tectonic characteristics created the perfect conditions for hydrocarbon accumulation over millions of years.

The Tilenga Project: Scope and Scale

Project Overview

The Tilenga Project represents the development of six oil fields within Contract Area CA-1, License Area LA-2 (North), and Exploration Area EA-1A in the Albertine Graben. TotalEnergies E&P Uganda B.V., in partnership with China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) and Uganda National Oil Company (UNOC), is developing this massive undertaking.

Key Project Statistics:

  • Total Wells Planned: 426 producer and injector wells across 31 well pads
  • Wells Completed (as of April 2025): 63 wells across 6 well pads
  • Project Area: Spans both north and south of the Nile River in Nwoya and Buliisa districts
  • Inside Murchison Falls National Park: 10 well pads
  • Expected Production: 190,000-200,000 barrels per day
  • Project Timeline: 25-30 years
  • Total Investment: Approximately $10 billion (part of $20 billion Lake Albert Development Project)

Geographic Distribution of Oil Fields

The Tilenga Project encompasses several named oil fields:

  • Jobi-Rii Fields (Nwoya District): Located north of the Nile
  • Gunya Field (Nwoya District)
  • Ngiri Field (Pakwach Basin - EA1)
  • Mpyo Field (Pakwach Basin)
  • Additional fields in Buliisa District: Kasemene, Kigogole, Ngara, Nsoga, Ngege, Wahrindi, Waraga, Nzizi

Infrastructure Development

The project includes extensive infrastructure:

  • Central Processing Facility (CPF): Located at Kasenyi for oil separation and treatment
  • Industrial Area: Supporting facilities and camps
  • Buried Pipelines: Underground infield pipelines and flowlines
  • River Nile Crossing: Horizontal directional drilling beneath the Nile River bed
  • Northern Pipeline: 96 kilometers with 16-inch diameter carrying oil from Jobi (Nwoya) to the refinery
  • Access Roads: Extensive network connecting well pads and facilities
  • Worker Accommodations: Multiple camps housing thousands of workers

Historical Context: The Pakwach Basin Discovery

Early Exploration (2006-2009)

Heritage Oil, a Calgary-based international exploration firm, pioneered oil exploration in the EA1 Pakwach Basin beginning in 2006. Between 2006 and 2009, Heritage discovered oil and gas in multiple wells including:

  • Ngiri-1 (2006)
  • Jobi-1 (2006)
  • Rii-1 (2006)
  • Ngiri-2 (2007)
  • Mpyo-1 (2007)

These discoveries confirmed the Pakwach Basin as one of the most significant oil-bearing formations in Uganda, establishing the foundation for what would become the Tilenga Project.

The Douglas Oluoch Case: A Cautionary Tale

In 2009, Heritage Oil needed a site to dump thousands of tons of oil waste from exploration activities in the Pakwach Basin. The company approached Douglas Oluoch, a peasant farmer in Gwot Apwoyo, Purongo Sub-County, Nwoya District, offering him approximately $375 (UGX 750,000) to dump solid waste on his land.

Oluoch accepted, unaware of the environmental and social consequences. When environmental protection organizations exposed the dangers, Oluoch became ostracized in his community—village-mates refused to buy his farm produce. At the time, Uganda lacked guidelines for oil and gas operations waste management, which wouldn't come until 2012.

The toxic waste sat on Oluoch's land until November 2014, when Total E&P Uganda became the first oil company to contract EnviroServ to clean up the mess in Purongo. Tests eventually declared the farmland clean and safe, with Total undertaking rehabilitation efforts. This case exemplifies the environmental risks faced by communities in Pakwach and Nwoya during early exploration phases.

Current Employment and Economic Impact

Local Employment Statistics

As of October 2024, the Tilenga Project has generated significant employment:

  • Total Ugandan Workforce: 10,571 employees (99.3% of total workforce)
  • From Host Communities: 3,719 individuals (35% of Ugandan workforce) from Buliisa, Nwoya, Pakwach, Hoima, Masindi, and Kikuube districts
  • Women Workers: 16% of Ugandan workforce
  • Trained and Certified: Over 14,000 individuals in various oil and gas sectors
  • International Experience: 13 Ugandans working with TotalEnergies affiliates worldwide

Infrastructure Development

The oil discovery has catalyzed road construction in the region. New asphalt roads now connect previously isolated communities, with the Hoima-Kaiso-Tonya Road serving as a primary artery. However, this infrastructure primarily serves industrial needs rather than community development.

Agricultural Market Challenges

Despite promises of economic opportunities, farmers in Pakwach, Nwoya, and neighboring districts report lack of markets for agricultural produce. At a July 2025 TotalEnergies Agri-Business Forum in Buliisa, farmers expressed frustration that oil sector demand remains limited and many cannot meet quality standards required for supply contracts.

Environmental Impacts: A Comprehensive Assessment

1. Wildlife Disturbance and Human-Wildlife Conflict

Elephant Migration and Human Casualties

Between the start of drilling operations in 2023 and April 2024, five people were killed by elephants moving outside Murchison Falls National Park into Buliisa District. According to the Africa Institute for Energy Governance (AFIEGO), noise pollution from drilling operations is driving animals out of the park.

Research by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), commissioned by TotalEnergies, discovered that seismic activities and drilling had significant negative impacts on large mammals, with many species moving up to one kilometer away from drilling sites. This displacement forces wildlife into human-populated areas, creating dangerous conflicts.

Key Wildlife Impacts:

  • Vibrations from drilling rigs disturb elephants
  • Increased light pollution affecting nocturnal species
  • Paved roads through the park increasing traffic and wildlife fatalities
  • Transformation of wilderness areas into industrial zones
  • Threats to 76 mammal species and over 450 bird species

Tourism stakeholders surveyed between February and July 2025 identified the oil and gas sector as accounting for 61.3% of key risks to the tourism industry, with construction of oil infrastructure in protected areas, biodiversity destruction, and increased poaching as primary concerns.

2. Threats to the Murchison Falls-Albert Delta Ramsar Site

The Murchison Falls-Albert Delta Wetland System is a Ramsar Site of international importance, serving as a critical spawning habitat for Lake Albert fisheries. Two of the ten well pads inside Murchison Falls National Park are positioned dangerously close to this wetland.

Ramsar Site Coordinates and Features: The Nile Delta splits into more than 50 channels near the park, with channels leading to Lake Albert near Wanseko (south) or Panyimur in Nebbi District (north). This delta is home to endangered species including the shoebill stork and gray-crowned cranes.

Environmental Risks:

  • Pollution from the Victoria Nile Pipeline Crossing threatens fish spawning grounds
  • Destruction of habitat for vulnerable and endangered bird species
  • Contamination of wetlands affecting aquatic biodiversity and hippos
  • Chemical-based drilling mud contaminating water sources

3. Lake Albert Water Quality and Fishing Industries

Lake Albert, Uganda's second-largest lake, produces more than 40% of Uganda's annual fish catch, providing food and livelihoods for thousands. The lake contributes 30% of Uganda's total fish stocks. However, oil activities pose severe threats to this ecosystem.

Lake Albert Specifications:

  • Part of the Nile River system
  • Shared between Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo
  • Critical water source for millions of people in East Africa
  • Home to tilapia, catfish, lungfish, and mudfish species

Pollution Concerns: Alice Kazimura, Executive Director of Kakindo Integrated Women Development Agency (KAWIDA), reports: "We keep wondering why fish have reduced when oil activities are in high gear." Community members fear that oil wells near the lake are contributing to fish scarcity.

Environmental Defenders' 2025 report warns that oil facilities on Lake Albert's shores lack adequate investment in mitigation measures for spills, waste disposal, and water overuse. The report documents:

  • Destruction of biodiversity
  • Pollution of underground waters
  • Risk of hydrocarbon-contaminated drainage reaching waterways
  • Absence of sound disposal systems for water, sewerage, and drilling debris

4. Oil Spill Risks and Preparedness

The Kibiro Incident (April 2020)

On April 4, 2020, an explosion occurred at a geothermal exploration hole in Kigorobya Sub-County, Hoima District, near Lake Albert. Residents feared an oil spill—one of the worst accidents possible in oil-rich areas. Water reeds along the lakeshore developed black deposits resembling crude oil extending kilometers away.

While the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development downplayed the incident as primarily sand, water, and clay rather than crude oil, the event raised serious questions about Uganda's preparedness for oil spill management.

Spill Risk Factors:

  • East African Crude Oil Pipeline (EACOP) crosses more than 200 rivers
  • Pipeline traverses active seismic zones experiencing regular earthquakes
  • Additional risks from erosion, accidental damage, and poor maintenance
  • Heated pipeline (50°C) increases complexity of spill response
  • Uganda's waxy crude (40°C pour point) solidifies at surface temperature

An independent Dutch assessment found that EACOP environmental assessments were "unquestioning" on environmental issues and the pipeline was "not fit for purpose." WWF Uganda warned in 2017 that the pipeline "is likely to lead to significant disturbance, fragmentation and increased poaching within important biodiversity and natural habitats."

5. Air Quality and Climate Concerns

Current Impacts:

  • Dust pollution from construction and heavy vehicle traffic
  • Noise pollution from drilling operations
  • Light pollution affecting nocturnal ecosystems
  • Visual pollution transforming wilderness into industrial landscapes

Climate Change Implications: Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIA) have been criticized for using climate data from inappropriate sources. Civil society organizations noted that climate data used in the Tilenga ESIA came from Bugoma, Kisinja, and Mbegu—different climatological zones—rather than from Butiaba and Pakwach weather stations in Buliisa or Nwoya districts.

Once production begins, the project is expected to double Uganda and Tanzania's combined annual carbon emissions, contradicting global climate commitments under the Paris Agreement.

6. Waste Management and Soil Contamination

Expected Waste Production:

  • Exploration Phase: Tens of thousands of tons generated from approximately 80 wells drilled
  • Production Phase: Approximately 300,000 tons of drill waste expected
  • Composition: Mud, rock, and chemical additives used in drilling

Waste Management Infrastructure: Uganda's first Exploration and Production (E&P) oil waste management facility opened in April 2015 at Nyamasoga village, Buseruka Sub-County, Hoima District—approximately 200 kilometers from Purongo, Nwoya District. The $20 million facility, operated by EnviroServ Waste Management Ltd and Green Albertine Ltd, has capacity for 20 years of waste treatment.

However, communities in Pakwach and Nwoya remain vulnerable to inadequate waste disposal, as demonstrated by the Douglas Oluoch case.

Water Resource Extraction and Usage

The Tilenga Project requires substantial water resources for drilling, processing, and operations. TotalEnergies has developed a water abstraction system to extract water from Lake Albert to meet oil well needs. This creates additional stress on:

  • Lake Albert's ecosystem
  • Fishing communities dependent on the lake
  • Downstream communities along the Nile River system
  • Wetland ecosystems

The combined network of pipelines totals approximately 180,000 kilometers when including oil pipelines, water systems, and related infrastructure.

Social and Human Rights Impacts

1. Land Acquisition and Displacement

The Tilenga Land Acquisition and Resettlement process affects thousands of Project-Affected Persons (PAPs). By June 2023, TotalEnergies had begun delivering new homes to displaced communities in Hoima, Buliisa, and Kikuube districts, though compensation issues persist in Nwoya and Pakwach.

Major Concerns Documented by Uganda Human Rights Commission (2013):

  • Inadequate compensation rates in Hoima, Buliisa, Nebbi, Nwoya, and Amuru districts
  • Land expropriation before compensation finalization (particularly in Nebbi)
  • Limited consultation and participation of affected communities in decision-making
  • Lack of respect for the right to participation

2. Stakeholder Engagement Failures

Jennifer Oweka, Pakwach District Environment Officer, identified critical gaps in the environmental and social management plan: "Normally, when we do stakeholder engagement, we are able to hear from the community to find out what their worries and concerns are so that we can recommend what suits their interest but this was not done by Total."

In November 2018, Citizens Concern Africa (CICOA) trained over 1,950 community members and local leaders in Buliisa, Nwoya, and Pakwach districts to understand the Tilenga ESIA report. Land rights emerged as the major issue raised by community members.

3. Threats to Environmental Human Rights Defenders

Environmental human rights defenders in Buliisa, Nwoya, Pakwach, and neighboring districts face attacks, intimidation, and threats for opposing:

  • Land grabbing
  • Oil and gas exploration activities
  • Large-scale development projects

Indigenous communities and ethnic minorities are particularly vulnerable due to:

  • Lack of formal land titles
  • High poverty and illiteracy rates
  • Limited access to justice
  • Insufficient legal protections

4. Loss of Traditional Livelihoods

Communities historically dependent on fishing, farming, and forest-based livelihoods now face:

  • Displacement from ancestral lands
  • Pollution threatening agricultural productivity
  • Land tenure insecurity
  • Marginalization by private conservancies and commercial agriculture
  • Competition from oil sector for land and resources

Legal and Regulatory Framework

1. Environmental Approvals and Controversies

On April 15, 2019, the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) granted a certificate of approval for the Tilenga Project ESIA covering oil exploration areas 1 and 2 between Nwoya and Buliisa districts. However, civil society organizations filed suit in May 2019 challenging the approval on grounds of:

  • Procedural irregularities
  • Abuse of rules of natural justice during public hearings
  • Conflict of interest: Dr. Fred Kabagambe-Kaliisa presided over public hearings despite being former Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Energy and current Senior Presidential Adviser on Oil and Gas

Despite these legal challenges, NEMA Executive Director Tom Okurut declared the certificate "a final document that cannot be revoked."

2. Uganda Wildlife Act and Protected Areas

The Uganda Wildlife Act (2019) allows oil and gas exploration within protected areas provided impacts are mitigated through habitat restoration. This provision enabled drilling in Murchison Falls National Park, despite it being Uganda's largest and most-visited protected area.

TotalEnergies claims to limit its footprint to less than 1% of the park's surface area and promises to:

  • Support 50% increase in park rangers
  • Fund rhinoceros reintroduction programs
  • Work with IUCN experts on chimpanzee conservation

However, critics argue these measures are insufficient to offset the fundamental incompatibility of industrial oil extraction within a protected wilderness area.

3. Waste Management Regulations

Uganda did not have guidelines for oil and gas operations waste management until NEMA issued them in 2012. Even then, implementation remained theoretical until the 2015 opening of the EnviroServ facility. This regulatory gap left communities like Purongo in Nwoya District vulnerable to toxic waste dumping during early exploration phases.

Recent Developments and Current Status

Drilling Progress (March-April 2025)

The Petroleum Authority of Uganda (PAU) conducted a three-day inspection (March 5-7, 2025) of drilling activities north of the Nile, including:

  • JobiRii (JBR) 02 well pad: Operational drilling
  • JBR05, JBR09, JBR10 well pads: Civil works in progress
  • Nile Crossing Site: Restoration efforts underway
  • Pakwach Sub-county: Community livelihood restoration projects

Production Timeline

Despite earlier projections for 2022-2024 commencement, oil production is now expected to begin in 2026. The project aims to reach cumulative plateau production of 230,000 barrels per day from combined Tilenga and Kingfisher projects.

Scholarship and Community Programs

TotalEnergies celebrated 10 years of its local scholarship program in 2023, having benefited over 270 students from Buliisa, Nwoya, Pakwach, Masindi, and Nebbi districts. Students receive support for O-level and A-level education with emphasis on science subjects.

Comparative Context: Global Oil Exploration in Protected Areas

The Tilenga Project would be the first oil project within a protected area in East Africa. While similar controversies have emerged in other regions—notably in Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo—the Murchison Falls development has progressed with less international opposition.

Sources suggest this is partly because:

  • Uganda's wildlife law explicitly allows oil exploration in protected areas
  • TotalEnergies engaged conservation groups early in the process
  • International attention focused on other African oil controversies

Mitigation Measures and Technology Deployment

TotalEnergies' Claimed Measures

Silent Drilling Technology: Specially designed rigs operate with minimal noise to reduce disturbance to elephants, lions, and bird species in Murchison Falls National Park.

Lighting Management:

  • Warm-colored, low-glare lights directed inward within well pads
  • Prevention of light dispersion to protect nocturnal wildlife
  • All equipment painted in ochre-yellow tones blending with landscape

Horizontal Directional Drilling: Underground pipelines and flowlines crossing the Nile River using horizontal drilling to minimize surface disruption.

Biodiversity Avoidance Maps: Development of avoidance maps identifying key biodiversity features to guide infrastructure placement.

Restoration Commitments: Immediate restoration of areas after drilling activities, including planting native vegetation.

Critical Assessment of Mitigation Effectiveness

Despite these measures, independent assessments reveal significant shortcomings:

AFIEGO's 2024 Monitoring:

  • Noise and vibration impacts remain significant
  • Light pollution documented at drilling sites
  • Wildlife displacement continues
  • Restoration efforts incomplete

Tourism Sector Concerns: Survey respondents noted that paved roads and motorized traffic have "changed the feel of the park" from a nature reserve to an industrial area, with 32% of Uganda's national park visitors choosing Murchison Falls in 2024.

Environmental Defenders' 2025 Report: "Installation of oil facilities on the shores of Lake Albert without adequate investment in mitigation measures for the Tilenga and Kingfisher areas pose major threats to the environment, water and health of communities around the lake."

Geospatial Analysis and Monitoring

Satellite Imagery Findings

AFIEGO's 2024 assessment used satellite imagery to map TotalEnergies' activities in Murchison Falls National Park, revealing:

  • Extent of vegetation clearing beyond disclosed boundaries
  • Proximity of well pads to critical wetland habitats
  • Scale of road network development
  • Visual evidence of habitat fragmentation

Protected Area Boundaries

Murchison Falls National Park covers approximately 3,840 square kilometers. The Tilenga Project's License Areas 1 and 2 originally covered nearly 10% of the park, though TotalEnergies claims development will be restricted to less than 1% with undeveloped areas voluntarily relinquished.

Critical Coordinates for Monitoring

High-Risk Zones:

  • Murchison Falls-Albert Delta Ramsar Site: Wetland of international importance near well pad development
  • Victoria Nile Pipeline Crossing: Fish spawning grounds and endangered species habitat
  • Jobi-Rii Field (Nwoya): Multiple well pads north of the Nile
  • Tangi Camp (Nwoya): Oil storage facility for test crude

Economic Projections and Revenue Sharing

Expected Government Revenue

The Uganda government anticipates significant revenue from oil production, though specific projections remain undisclosed due to confidentiality of Production Sharing Agreements.

Investment Figures

  • Lake Albert Development Project: $20 billion total
  • Tilenga and Kingfisher: $10 billion
  • EACOP Pipeline: $3.5-4 billion
  • Uganda Oil Refinery: $4 billion (negotiations with Alpha MBM Investments)

Local Economic Reality

Despite these massive investments, communities in Pakwach and Nwoya report:

  • Limited direct economic benefits
  • Market access problems for agricultural products
  • Rising living costs due to influx of workers
  • Land values disrupted by industrial development

Climate Justice and International Advocacy

The #StopEACOP Campaign

International civil society movements have mobilized against the East African Crude Oil Pipeline and associated oil development. Six NGOs filed a landmark case against TotalEnergies in French courts, though it was dismissed in March 2023, allowing drilling to proceed.

Campaign Arguments:

  • Oil extraction endangers wildlife and violates human rights
  • Project threatens regional water supply
  • Will double Uganda and Tanzania's annual carbon emissions
  • Contradicts global climate commitments

Regional Implications

Uganda's oil development signals broader trends across East Africa, with Kenya, Tanzania, and other nations exploring their own hydrocarbon potential. Success or failure of environmental management in Pakwach and Nwoya will set precedents for the entire region.

Future Outlook and Recommendations

Immediate Concerns (2025-2026)

As production commencement approaches in 2026, critical issues require urgent attention:

  1. Oil Spill Preparedness: Uganda must demonstrate adequate capacity to respond to spills threatening Lake Albert and the Nile River system
  2. Wildlife Conflict Management: Enhanced rangers and community-based monitoring systems needed to prevent human-wildlife conflicts
  3. Water Quality Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of Lake Albert, Nile River, and wetlands for contamination
  4. Community Compensation: Resolution of outstanding land acquisition and resettlement grievances

Medium-Term Challenges (2026-2030)

  1. Waste Management Capacity: EnviroServ facility must prove capable of handling production-phase waste volumes
  2. Tourism Coexistence: Strategies required to maintain Murchison Falls' attractiveness while accommodating industrial operations
  3. Employment Sustainability: Transition from construction to operations phase will reduce workforce; alternative livelihoods needed
  4. Environmental Restoration: Verification that restoration commitments are fulfilled as drilling progresses

Long-Term Considerations (Beyond 2030)

  1. Cumulative Impact Assessment: Comprehensive evaluation of combined effects from 25-30 years of operations
  2. Decommissioning Planning: Clear plans for infrastructure removal and site restoration at project end
  3. Just Transition: Pathways for communities to transition to post-oil economy
  4. Climate Adaptation: Resources for communities to adapt to climate changes exacerbated by fossil fuel extraction

Conclusion

The oil exploration activities around Pakwach and Nwoya represent a defining moment for Uganda's environmental governance and community rights. While the Tilenga Project promises economic transformation through employment, infrastructure, and government revenue, the environmental and social costs are profound and possibly irreversible.

The destruction of biodiversity in Murchison Falls National Park, threats to Lake Albert's fisheries, displacement of communities, and contribution to global climate change raise fundamental questions about the true cost of "development." The experiences of communities like Gwot Apwoyo in Purongo—where Douglas Oluoch's farmland became a toxic waste dump—illustrate the vulnerability of local populations to industrial exploitation.

As drilling intensifies and production approaches, the districts of Pakwach and Nwoya serve as a critical test case: Can extractive industries and environmental conservation coexist? Can economic benefits reach communities bearing environmental burdens? Can international corporations be held accountable for their social and environmental commitments?

The answers to these questions will reverberate far beyond the coordinates of 2°27'N, 31°29'E (Pakwach) and 2°38'N, 32°00'E (Nwoya), influencing oil development across East Africa and the future of protected areas worldwide. For now, the communities of northern Uganda watch as the earth beneath their feet is transformed, hoping that promises of prosperity will outweigh the undeniable costs of extraction.

Sources and References

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  17. Wikipedia - "Uganda National Oil Company" (September 8, 2025) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_National_Oil_Company
  18. Wikipedia - "Nwoya" (March 27, 2024) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nwoya
  19. Nwoya District Official Website - "Location & Size" https://nwoya.go.ug/lg/location-size
  20. Citizens Concern Africa - "Promotion of land rights" http://citizensconcernafrica.org/promotion-of-land-rights/

All coordinates and geospatial data verified through multiple sources including official government websites, GPS coordinate databases, and satellite mapping services.


Research Code;NUG-057-2025

Country;Uganda

Region;Northern Uganda

Publisher ID;pub-6403711198558955

Location: Northern Region, Uganda

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