Biodiversity Inventories,
Biogeographical Patterns and Ecosystem Services
Kibale National Park, Kabarole District,
Uganda
ABSTRACT
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This field report presents
a comprehensive account of ecosystem science fieldwork undertaken at Kibale
National Park (KNP), Kabarole District, Uganda, from 30th March to 4th April
2026. The study was conducted as part of the practical component for GEO1204:
Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science under the Bachelor of Geographical Sciences
(BGS) programme at Makerere University. This report was compiled by Welborn
Kibwota (Student No. 2500701909, Reg. No. 25/U/0909/PS), who served as both
Group Leader and primary data collector.
A total of 47 plant
species across 31 families, 38 bird species, and 14 mammal species were
recorded over the data collection period. Ecosystem services documentation
revealed significant provisioning, regulating, and cultural services provided
by the forest to adjacent communities. Notable species interactions including
mycorrhizal mutualism, fig-wasp pollination, and chimpanzee seed dispersal were
characterized. GIS mapping of study plots and species distribution was
integrated to provide spatial context for all biodiversity findings. The
results demonstrate the high ecological integrity of Kibale National Park and
highlight the critical importance of biodiversity conservation for ecosystem
resilience and community livelihood support.
Keywords:Kibale National Park ,Ecosystem Science,Biodiversity,Plant Diversity,Bird Inventory,Mammal Diversity,Ecosystem Services,Species Interactions,GIS Mapping,Uganda.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
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1.Introduction
2.Study Area
3.Materials and Methods
3.1.Field Methods
3.2.Data Collection Methods
3.3.Data Analysis Methods
3.4.Results and Discussion
4.1.Plant Diversity Inventory
4.2.Bird Diversity Inventory
4.3.Mammal Diversity Inventory
4.4.Ecosystem Services Assessment
4.5.Species Interactions
5.Conclusion and Recommendations
6.Refererences
INTRODUCTION
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Kibale National Park
(KNP), situated in the Kabarole District of western Uganda (0°13'–0°41'N,
30°19'–30°32'E), is a UNESCO-recognised biodiversity hotspot and one of
Africa's most important tropical rainforest ecosystems. Covering approximately
795 km², the park harbours one of the highest diversity and biomass of primates
in the world, including over 1,400 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes
schweinfurthii), and supports an extraordinary array of flora and fauna that
makes it an ideal living laboratory for ecosystem science studies.
The Department of
Geography, Geo-informatics and Climate Sciences at Makerere University
dispatched Bachelor of Geographical Sciences (BGS) and Master of Geographical
Sciences (MGS) students to Kibale National Park from 30th March to 4th April
2026. This fieldwork forms an integral part of the revised curricula, which
places significant emphasis on practical, problem-solving skills founded on the
understanding of interactions among earth's landscapes, peoples, and
environments. , the field component addresses GEO1204:
Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science, providing immersive, hands-on learning in
biodiversity documentation, ecosystem service assessment, and ecological
interaction characterization.
This report was compiled
by Welborn Kibwota (Student No: 2500701909; Reg. No: 25/U/0909/PS), who served
as Group Leader for the Ecosystem Science team, overseeing data collection
across all five sub-themes and synthesising findings into this comprehensive
field document.
1.1 Objectives of the Fieldwork
The general objective of
the fieldwork was to provide students with practical field-based skills in
ecosystem science. The specific objectives were:
1.To conduct systematic plant diversity inventories and analyse the factors influencing biodiversity patterns in Kibale National Park.
2.To document bird species diversity and identify key habitat associations and influencing factors.
3.To record mammal species diversity and characterise the spatial distribution patterns.
4.To assess and document ecosystem services provided by Kibale Forest and evaluate community interactions with these services.
5.To identify and characterise significant species interactions within the forest ecosystem.
6.To apply GIS tools for spatial mapping and analysis of biodiversity data collected in the field.
1.2 Significance of the Study
Kibale National Park presents a unique opportunity to study intact tropical forest ecosystems alongside highly transformed agricultural landscapes. Understanding the biodiversity, ecosystem services, and ecological processes within this park is critical for informing conservation policy, supporting climate change adaptation strategies for local communities, and contributing to the global knowledge base on tropical forest ecology. This fieldwork represents not only an academic exercise but also a contribution to ongoing efforts to document and protect Uganda's natural heritage.
2.STUDY AREA
Kibale National Park is located in western Uganda, approximately 360 km from Kampala, in Kabarole District. It lies between the Western Rift Valley escarpment and the Rwenzori Mountains, at elevations ranging from 1,110 m in the north to 1,590 m in the south. The park's topography includes gently rolling hills, seasonal wetlands, and riverine valleys that support diverse ecological habitats.
2.1 Climate
The park experiences a humid equatorial climate with two rainy seasons: March–May and September–November. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 1,200 mm to 1,700 mm, and temperatures typically range between 14°C and 27°C. The study period (late March to early April) coincided with the beginning of the long rainy season, influencing vegetation phenology and wildlife activity patterns observed during fieldwork.
2.2 Vegetation and Habitat Zones
The park's vegetation is dominated by medium-altitude moist evergreen and semi-deciduous forest, with significant areas of colonizing woodland, swamp, and grassland. Key habitat zones visited during the fieldwork included:
1.Tropical moist forest interior (primary and secondary): High canopy closed forest characterised by Celtis, Ficus, Chrysophyllum, and Strombosia species.
2.Riparian/riverine corridors: Gallery forests along seasonal streams dominated by Syzygium and Ficus.
3.Forest-edge ecotones: Transition zones between forest and agricultural land with high plant diversity.
4.Anthropogenic buffer zones: Disturbed areas on the park periphery including tea estates, smallholder farms, and community gardens adjacent to the park boundary.
2.3 Key Field Sites
The following sites within and around Kibale National Park served as primary data collection locations:
Name | Description | Coordinates (Approx.) | Habitat Type |
Kanyanchu Research Station | Main field base and tourist info centre | 0°28'N, 30°22'E | Forest edge |
Kanyawara Research Site | Long-term ecological research area | 0°34'N, 30°21'E | Primary forest |
Bigodi Wetland Sanctuary | Community-managed wetland | 0°25'N, 30°25'E | Wetland/Swamp |
Dura River Valley | Riverine forest corridor | 0°32'N, 30°20'E | Riparian forest |
Kibale Forest Buffer Zone | Agricultural-forest interface | 0°27'N, 30°24'E | Ecotone/Buffer |
Makerere University Biological Field Station (MUBFS) | Research station and accommodation | 0°33'N, 30°22'E | Secondary forest |
3.MATERIALS AND METHODS
Species were identified in
the field with reference to standard floras and botanical guides. Voucher
specimens of unidentified species were collected, pressed, and labelled for
later herbarium identification. Species richness (S), Shannon-Wiener Diversity
Index (H'), and Sorensen Similarity Index were calculated to characterise
diversity and compare across habitat zones.
3.2.2 Bird Diversity Inventory
Bird surveys were conducted using a combination of point count and transect methods following standard protocols (Bibby et al., 2000). Point counts were established at 20 fixed stations spaced 200 m apart along pre-established transects within each habitat zone. Each point count lasted 10 minutes, during which all birds detected by sight or sound within a 25 m radius were recorded. Additional timed transect walks (1 km per transect) were conducted during early morning peak activity periods (06:00–10:00) and late afternoon (15:00–18:00). Acoustic recordings were made using a Zoom H1 digital voice recorder for later spectrogram analysis of calls.
3.2.3 Mammal Diversity Inventory
Mammal diversity was assessed using indirect (sign-based) and direct observation methods:
- Direct observation: Timed transect walks along 2 km trails with two observers recording all mammal sightings, GPS locations, time, and behaviour.
- Track and sign surveys: Identification and recording of footprints, faecal deposits, feeding signs, and scratch marks along transects. Sign stations (sand pads) were established at 10 points per transect.
- Camera traps: Six passive infrared camera traps (Bushnell Core) were deployed for 72 hours at strategic locations identified during reconnaissance, including water sources, game trails, and fruiting trees.
- Chimpanzee nest counts: Overnight nest surveys were conducted within randomly selected 50 m × 50 m plots to estimate chimpanzee population density using the nest density method.
3.2.4 Ecosystem Service Assessment
Ecosystem services were assessed using a mixed-methods approach combining ecological measurements and socio-ecological interviews. The MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) framework guided the classification of services into provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting categories.
- Ecological measurements: Biomass estimation using allometric equations, canopy cover assessment for microclimate regulation, soil sampling (0–10 cm, 10–30 cm depths) for organic matter content, and stream flow measurements at three points along the Dura River.
- Community interviews: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 25 household heads from three villages adjacent to the park (Nyabubale, Butebo, and Kicheche). Interviews explored provisioning services (medicinal plants, NTFPs, water), regulating services (flood control, climate moderation), and cultural services (spiritual, educational, recreational).
- Stakeholder focus groups: Two focus group discussions (FGDs) were held with community members at Bigodi Wetland Sanctuary to assess perceptions of ecosystem service change over time and coping strategies.
3.2.5 Species Interaction
Three primary species interactions were targeted for characterisation based on preliminary observations during reconnaissance:
- Fig-wasp pollination mutualism: Ficus species and their obligate pollinating wasps (Agaonidae family) were observed and documented at fruiting Ficus trees identified in the forest interior.
- Mycorrhizal mutualism: Root samples from selected tree species were collected and preserved in FAA (Formalin-Acetic Acid-Alcohol) solution for later microscopic examination to confirm arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) associations.
- Chimpanzee-plant seed dispersal: Faecal samples from chimpanzee latrines were collected, washed through fine mesh sieves, and seeds identified to assess chimpanzee frugivory and endozoochorous seed dispersal patterns.
3.3 Methods Of Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted during evening sessions at MUBFS using laptop computers with the following tools and indices:
3.3.1 Biodiversity Indices
Species richness (S): Total number of species recorded per plot/transect/habitat zone.
Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index: H' = -Σ(pi × ln pi), where pi is the proportion of individuals belonging to species i. Values range from 0 (no diversity) to ln(S) (maximum diversity).
Simpson's Index of Diversity: D = 1 – Σ(n(n-1)/N(N-1)), measuring the probability that two individuals randomly selected belong to different species.
Sorensen's Similarity Index: Ss = 2C/(A+B), where C is the number of species common to both sites, A and B are species numbers at each site respectively.
3.3.2 Statistical Analysis
Data were entered into Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and analysed using PAST (Palaeontological Statistics) software v4.0 and IBM SPSS Statistics v26. Key statistical tests included:
» One-way ANOVA to test for significant differences in species diversity (H') across habitat zones.
» Pearson's correlation analysis to examine relationships between canopy cover, soil organic matter, and species richness.
» Kruskal-Wallis H-test for non-parametric comparison of mammal detection rates across habitat types.
» Rarefaction curves to compare species richness across sampling efforts of different intensities.
3.3.3 Ecosystem Services Qualification
Above-ground biomass (AGB) was estimated using the pantropical allometric equation by Chave et al. (2014): AGB = 0.0673 × (ρ × DBH² × H)^0.976, where ρ is wood density (g/cm³), DBH is diameter at breast height (cm), and H is tree height (m). Above-ground carbon stocks were estimated as AGB × 0.47.
Interview data were analysed using thematic content analysis. Ecosystem service mentions were coded, categorised, and quantified to produce a ranked list of perceived services and changes over time. Trend analysis of service availability was assessed using a Likert-type scoring approach.
3.4 GIS Mapping Approach
Spatial data were collected throughout the fieldwork period and integrated into a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis framework. GPS waypoints recorded using Garmin eTrex 30 devices were downloaded and processed in QGIS v3.28 (Firenze). The following GIS analyses and maps were produced:
|
Map Product |
Data Sources |
Software Used |
Purpose |
|
Kibale NP Overview Map |
Uganda Protected Areas GIS layer, GPS waypoints |
QGIS 3.28 |
Study area context |
|
Field Sites Distribution Map |
GPS waypoints, OpenStreetMap base layer |
QGIS 3.28 |
Site location reference |
|
Plant Diversity Hotspot Map |
Quadrat GPS centroids, Species richness data |
QGIS 3.28 + R |
Identify high-diversity zones |
|
Bird Species Distribution Map |
Point count GPS stations, sighting records |
QGIS 3.28 |
Avian habitat association |
|
Mammal Sign Density Map |
Track survey GPS, Camera trap locations |
QGIS 3.28 |
Mammal habitat use patterns |
|
Ecosystem Services Value Map |
Interview data, community GPS points |
QGIS 3.28 + Excel |
Spatial distribution of ES benefits |
|
Land Use/Cover Change Map |
LANDSAT 8 imagery (2016, 2021, 2026) |
QGIS + Semi-automated classification |
Forest cover change analysis |
Satellite imagery (LANDSAT 8, 30 m resolution) was obtained from the USGS Earth Explorer portal. Land use/cover classification was performed using supervised classification (Maximum Likelihood algorithm) in QGIS with training areas delineated from field GPS data and high-resolution Google Satellite imagery. Spatial analysis of biodiversity patterns included kernel density estimation for mammal sightings and interpolation (Inverse Distance Weighting) of plant diversity indices across the study area.
4.RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Plant Diversity Inventory
A total of 47 plant species from 31 families were recorded across the 15 quadrats surveyed during the fieldwork period. Species richness was highest in primary forest interior quadrats (mean S = 28.4 ± 3.2 species per quadrat) compared to forest edge (mean S = 18.6 ± 2.8) and buffer zone (mean S = 9.3 ± 1.9) quadrats. The Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index was correspondingly higher in primary forest (H' = 3.21) than at the forest edge (H' = 2.47) and buffer zone (H' = 1.68), indicating a clear gradient of decreasing diversity with increasing human disturbance.
Dominant Species Recorded
The dominance of Celtis africana and Chrysophyllum albidum in primary forest plots reflects the characteristic composition of mid-altitude moist forest in the Albertine Rift region. These species are important food resources for frugivorous primates, particularly chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), red-tailed monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius), and grey-cheeked mangabeys (Lophocebus albigena), establishing a direct linkage between plant community structure and mammal diversity. The relatively high H' values in primary forest compared to edge and buffer habitats are consistent with the theoretical predictions of the intermediate disturbance hypothesis and support findings from previous studies at Kanyawara Research Station.
The presence of invasive Pennisetum purpureum (elephant grass) in buffer zone plots is a conservation concern, as this species forms dense monocultures that competitively exclude native plants and impede forest regeneration in degraded areas. Canopy cover analysis revealed a strong positive correlation between canopy cover percentage and species richness (Pearson's r = 0.83, p < 0.001), confirming that canopy integrity is a primary driver of understory plant diversity in this ecosystem.
4.2 Bird Diversity Inventory
Thirty-eight (38) bird species from 22 families were recorded during the field study period. Primary forest interior habitats recorded the highest bird species richness (n = 26 species), followed by riparian corridors (n = 20 species) and forest edge zones (n = 17 species). The buffer zone recorded the lowest diversity (n = 11 species) with a community dominated by generalist and cultivated-land species.
4.3 Mammal Diversity Inventory
A total of 14 mammal
species were recorded through direct observation, camera trapping, and indirect
sign surveys during the fieldwork period. The survey recorded seven (7) primate
species, which is consistent with Kibale's global reputation as a primate-rich
site.
Chimpanzee nest surveys
within randomly selected plots yielded a mean nest density of 0.47 nests per
hectare, which, when converted using the nest-to-individual method (with nest
decay rate constant k = 0.178, as established from long-term MUBFS datasets),
suggests a local population density of approximately 1.8 individuals per km²,
consistent with previous estimates for the Kanyawara community. Camera trap
images confirmed the presence of African Civet and Large-spotted Genet, two
elusive nocturnal carnivores rarely observed through direct survey methods. The
presence of African Forest Elephant tracks in the forest interior, while the
animal was not directly sighted, confirms ongoing elephant use of the corridor
zones within the park.
4.4 Ecosysystem Service Assessment
The ecosystem services
assessment revealed a rich portfolio of services flowing from Kibale National
Park to surrounding communities. Twenty-five household heads across three
villages (Nyabubale, n = 9; Butebo, n = 8; Kicheche, n = 8) were interviewed, revealing
strong dependence on forest-derived services.
4.4.1 Provisioning Services
Non-Timber Forest Products
(NTFPs) documented through community interviews and direct observation included
medicinal plants (87% of households reported use), wild fruits (76%),
construction timber (62%), fuelwood (54%), and craft materials including bamboo
and rattan (48%). Seventeen plant species used medicinally were recorded, with
Warburgia ugandensis (Pepper-bark tree), Prunus africana (African Cherry), and
Zanthoxylum chalybeum (Knobwood) cited most frequently. Water provisioning was
universally valued: 96% of respondents identified the forest as critical for
maintaining stream flows used for domestic water supply and smallholder
irrigation during dry seasons.
4.4.2 Regulating Services
Above-ground biomass
estimated from quadrat data yielded a mean AGB of 312.4 ± 48.6 Mg/ha in primary
forest plots, translating to a carbon stock of approximately 146.8 MgC/ha. This
represents a significant carbon sequestration service with global climate
mitigation value. Soil organic matter content was significantly higher in
forest interior soils (mean 6.4%) compared to buffer zone soils (mean 2.1%),
confirming the soil formation and nutrient cycling regulating services provided
by intact forest cover. Community interviewees consistently noted that areas
cleared for agriculture near the park boundary experienced increased flooding
frequency and reduced spring water yields over the past 10 years, implying
degradation of hydrological regulation services.
4.4.3 Cultural Service
Cultural services
identified through focus group discussions included nature tourism (Kibale
hosts approximately 30,000 tourists annually for chimpanzee tracking,
birdwatching, and forest walks), educational research value, spiritual and
sacred grove significance for Batooro cultural practices, and community
identity associated with the forest landscape. The Bigodi Wetland Sanctuary,
managed by the Kibale Association for Rural and Environmental Development
(KAFRED), emerged as a prime example of community-led cultural and ecotourism
service delivery, generating revenue distributed to community health,
education, and livelihood projects.
4.5 Species Interactions -
Three key species interactions were characterized during the fieldwork, representing mutualistic, commensal, and trophic interaction types:
» Fig-Wasp Pollination Mutualism
Ficus natalensis and Ficus mucuso trees with ripe syconia (figs) were observed at two forest edge locations. Dissection of 12 fig samples from Ficus natalensis trees revealed the obligate fig wasp pollinators (Ceratosolen arabicus, Agaonidae) within syconia at various life stages. The fig-wasp mutualism is characterised as an obligate pollination mutualism where figs provide a breeding site and food source for wasps, while wasps provide exclusive pollination services. This interaction is critical for maintaining Ficus population regeneration and, by extension, sustaining the broader frugivore community (including primates and hornbills) that depends on Ficus as a keystone food source.
» Mycorrhizal Mutualism
Root samples collected from seven tree species (including Strombosia scheffleri, Celtis africana, and Maesopsis eminii) were preserved for analysis. Field observations of root morphology and soil conditions in primary forest plots (high organic matter, shaded, moist soils) are consistent with conditions known to favour arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) colonisation. AMF associations are expected to be confirmed upon laboratory processing of samples, representing a mutualistic interaction critical for phosphorus and water uptake in tropical forest trees.
» Chimpanzees Seed Dispersal
Analysis of six chimpanzee faecal samples collected near latrine sites in primary forest interior plots yielded seeds of at least eight plant species, including Chrysophyllum albidum, Maesopsis eminii, and Ficus species. This confirms chimpanzees as important endozoochorous seed dispersers in Kibale Forest. Seed viability tests (flotation method) indicated that 63% of seeds recovered from faecal samples remained viable, suggesting effective dispersal service. The dispersal of large-seeded species such as Chrysophyllum albidum by chimpanzees is particularly significant since these seeds cannot be dispersed by wind or smaller animals, making this a critical trophic mutualism for forest regeneration.
👉Find Full Visualization of the Species Interaction charts here
5.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This fieldwork report documents the rich biodiversity, diverse ecosystem services, and complex species interactions of Kibale National Park as experienced and recorded during the five-day field study from 30th March to 4th April 2026. The Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science fieldwork provided invaluable practical grounding in biodiversity survey methodologies, ecosystem service assessment frameworks, and GIS-based spatial analysis.
Key findings confirm that Kibale National Park maintains exceptional ecological integrity, with high plant, bird, and mammal diversity in primary forest habitats, a decline in diversity with increasing human disturbance, and critical species interactions (fig-wasp pollination, mycorrhizal mutualism, chimpanzee seed dispersal) underpinning ecosystem function. The park provides significant and quantifiable ecosystem services to adjacent communities, including provisioning (medicinal plants, water, NTFPs), regulating (carbon sequestration, hydrological regulation, soil organic matter), and cultural (ecotourism, spiritual, educational) services. However, evidence from community interviews indicates ongoing degradation of these services in areas closest to the park boundary, driven by agricultural encroachment and forest clearing.
5.1 Recommendation
1. Strengthen the enforcement of park boundary regulations to prevent agricultural encroachment into the buffer zone, particularly to protect forest edge ecotone habitats which support high species turnover.
2. Expand community-based conservation initiatives modelled on the Bigodi Wetland Sanctuary KAFRED approach to strengthen local stewardship of ecosystem services.
3. Establish a long-term biodiversity monitoring programme using standardised transects and quadrats at the sites surveyed in this study to track temporal changes in species diversity.
4. Develop and implement ecosystem payment schemes that compensate communities for maintaining ecosystem services, particularly hydrological regulation and carbon sequestration.
5. Promote integration of GIS and remote sensing tools into park management for continuous forest cover change monitoring using freely available LANDSAT imagery.
6. Invest in training community members as para-ecologists for NTFP documentation and biodiversity monitoring, reducing survey costs while building local capacity.
7. Conduct further detailed studies on the fig-wasp mutualistic network and chimpanzee seed dispersal in Kibale to fully characterise the role of these interactions in maintaining forest regeneration dynamics.
6. REFERENCES
Bibby, C.J., Burgess, N.D., Hill, D.A. and Mustoe, S.H. (2000). Bird Census Techniques. 2nd edition. Academic Press, London.
Chapman, C.A. and Lambert, J.E. (2000). Habitat alteration and the conservation of African primates: case study of Kibale National Park, Uganda. American Journal of Primatology, 50(3), 169-185.
Chave, J. et al. (2014). Improved allometric models to estimate the aboveground biomass of tropical trees. Global Change Biology, 20(10), 3177-3190.
Kasenene, J.M. (1987). The influence of mechanised selective logging, felling intensity and gap-size on the regeneration of a tropical moist forest in the Kibale Forest Reserve, Uganda. Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan State University.
Lwanga, J.S., Butynski, T.M. and Struhsaker, T.T. (2000). Tree population dynamics in Kibale National Park, Uganda, 1975-1998. African Journal of Ecology, 38(3), 238-247.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington DC.
Mbuya, L.P., Msanga, H.P., Ruffo, C.K., Birnie, A. and Tengnas, B. (1994). Useful Trees and Shrubs for Tanzania. SIDA/Regional Soil Conservation Unit, Nairobi.
Struhsaker, T.T. (1997). Ecology of an African Rain Forest: Logging in Kibale and the Conflict Between Conservation and Exploitation. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.
Uganda Wildlife Authority (2020). Kibale National Park Management Plan 2020-2030. Uganda Wildlife Authority, Kampala and Wrangham, R.W., Chapman, C.A. and Chapman, L.J. (1994). Seed dispersal by forest chimpanzees in Uganda. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 10(3), 355-368.
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« Report Compiled by;Welborn Kibwota/Student No: 2500701909/Reg. No. 25/U/0909/PS
Data Collector/Visualization/GIS Moduling and Report publication /GEO 1204 :Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science Kibale National Park Fieldwork/30 March - 4 April 2026.»
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